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The Hebrew confession of faith is "Sh’ma Yisrael Adonay Eloheynu Adonay ekhad", "Hear o Israel, the Lord our God is the only one Lord". This statement is the foundation on which Hebrews’ culture and spirituality is built, settling a sharp separation from all other peoples. The God of Avraham, of Yitzhak and of Ya’kov is the only true God. His ineffable Name "Shem ha-meforash" cannot be mentioned. . In the first three commandments, God Himself has defined the behaviour towards His Person: you should not have other gods besides Me; you should not make any image or objects of worship; you should not take the Name of the Lord your God in vain. An everlasting, invisible, holy God, Who cannot be represented and whose Name cannot be uttered; notwithstanding, He is not an inaccessible and impersonal God as Allah is in Islam, on the contrary, He is a Personal Being, with Whom it is possible to have a close relationship. Such possibility that man has to address God in this way is a peculiarity of Hebrew faith. The Temple of Yerushalayim was the only one in which there was not any image of the Divinity. The Temple was the house of Shekinah, the Spirit of God amongst His people. Therefore, it would has been not only nonsense but also offensive towards Him to try to represent Him by any image. This awareness that the people of Israel has, of being elected to reveal God to the nations, has marked all characters of Hebrews, their culture and history.
Torah is the Teaching that God gave to the people of Israel during the Exodus through Mosheh, and it is the grounds of the Hebrew Scriptures (Tanakh). The word "Torah" defines mainly the five books of Mosheh, but it is also the name given to the whole Scriptures, even though these are not only the Torah but are completed by the Nevi’im (Prophets) and Ketubim (Writings), composed and compiled subsequently.
Torah, that means "Teaching" rather than "Law", is based mainly on the ten commandments, from which are derived all regulations and rules (mitzvoth), that according to rabbinic interpretation are 613.
The Hebrew faith had its historical, cultural and spiritual development during the period running from the Exodus to the deportation in Babylon, when only the Torah was complete and the remnant of the Holy Scriptures was in a prophetical revelation phase. The worship performance, held by Levites, was concentrated on sacrifices, which should have been carried out only at the Temple in Yerushalayim, and before it was built, at the Tabernacle. The Prophets had the mission of admonishing the people to keep the Torah. The exile in Babylon and the ruin of the Temple produced an empty space in the heart of Hebraism, by which it became necessary to find an alternative way: so Judaism was born, whose basis is the Synagogue, a new gathering place, no longer for priestly performances but for teaching the Torah.
Therefore, in this way arose a new worship system, in which it became important those elements not related to sacrifice but to the obedience to the mitzvoth: Shabbath keeping, kashrut, festivals celebration, reading of the Scriptures, worship, etc. While sacrifices were the main part of Hebrew worship, these must be performed exclusively in the Temple of Yerushalayim and were absolutely forbidden elsewhere, to mark a sharp separation between the people of Israel and the heathen nations. The return from Babylon and rebuilding of the Temple, that implied the restoration of sacrificial system, did not mean the end of the Synagogue; this institution kept her dignity and was present in every community, also in Yerushalayim, even if there it was the Temple himself. The compilation of the inspired Scriptures was completed, in Hebrew. 
Synagogue of Florence (Italy)
This has been also a reason by which the Synagogue was important, because Jews after the exile did no longer speak Hebrew fluently: their language was Babylonian-Aramaic. The Scriptures must be read only from the original text and then they may be explained in vernacular language; this task was fulfilled by the Synagogue. In a subsequent period, in order that people would be able to learn the Scriptures, some paraphrases were written in Aramaic: the Targummim.
Roma are hardly identifiable as an Indo-European people according to cultural and spiritual features, which reveal deep Middle-Eastern roots and are radically different from those of Indo-Aryan ethnic groups. There is a reason by which Roma living in India are not included in the system of castes (like Hebrews of India), that is a prerogative of peoples which are not native of the Indian sub-continent. One of the many terms applied to Roma in India is "Ashura" – that is, Assyrians? Searching into this people’s mind, we can discover many concepts that lead us to acknowledge an ancient origin completely alien to Indo-Aryan realm, of which there is not any trace, not even in the outward manifestations or traditions, usages and customs. I would like to enumerate some of such peculiar features, common to all Roma groups, no matter if they are Gypsies, Sinti, Kalderash or any other:
1- There is not any trace of pantheistic thought in Romany spirituality, and it is not even possible to find any sign to assume that in past times they may have been polytheist. Even if Roma became Christian twenty centuries ago, this is not a sufficient evidence to explain the "Hebrew" conception that Roma have about God: in fact, for them God is a real Being, a Person so close to us that it is possible to talk with Him, to be His friend or even to argue with Him… Even though Roma have not any own religion, their awareness of God is similar to that knowledge of Him that Jews have, I mean, those Jews who are no longer identified as Jews because they have left their people or have been compelled to assimilation. This conception of the Deity, as I have said in the introduction of this page, is not found in any other people.
Only Hebrews knew that God is invisible and Almighty -El Shaday- and nevertheless, He is not inaccessible and is a Person.2- Roma’s Torah: within Romany community, there are laws and rules which are very clear and should be obeyed more or less strictly, according to the customs of each group. Such laws have not any similarity with those of Indo-European peoples, and may be compared only with those of Hebrews, mainly in the Exodus time.
For both Roma and Hebrews it is important to distinguish between purity and impurity; this concept of ritual impurity is by itself conflicting with pantheism, that cannot consider anything to be impure.
Romany family in traditional clothing
This regards mainly people and things with which a person is in touch, specially clothes: those considered to be impure must be washed separately in a receptacle intended for such use (in which, if accidentally a pure cloth is washed, it remains contaminated).
These rules are written, among other Bible verses, in Leviticus 5:3 and ch. 15.Related with this concept there is a law of the camp in Deuteronomy 23:12.
There are also ritual impurities connected to birth and death, and also in this case, Roma observe exactly what is written in Leviticus 12:2-4: "if a woman conceives and gives birth to a child, she will be unclean for seven days… she is to wait an additional thirty-three days to be purified… she is not to touch any holy thing or come into the sanctuary until the time of her purification is over.". Punctually, those Roma who are "law-keepers", do not allow women to do anything during forty days after they have given birth, they cannot cook or appear in public. Once the purification period is ended, her dresses which she wore, her bed, plates, glasses and everything she used are broken or burned – this fact is in conflict also with Persian religion, because it is forbidden to throw on fire any impure thing, while in the Bible the fire itself is considered to be a purifier. There is also an interesting agreement between Hebrews and Roma with regards to their concept of the others’ impurity, that is, of those who do not belong to their people. The contrasts Hebrews/Goyim and Roma/Gadge have similar characteristics: a law-abiding Hebrew would have never entered any Goyim’s house, as they are impure just because they are Goyim, and relationship with them should be limited to what is necessary. We may say the same about Roma, who will not lodge by Gadge’s if not for good reasons, or else they take Gadge’s "territory" as the place "out of the camp" where necessary impure acts should be done (see Marimé).
With regards to rules concerning marriage, once more Roma find themselves quite in contrast with Indo-European peoples and in agreement with Bible rules. While among Indians and Indo-Europeans in general it is the bride who holds the dowry, among Roma it is the man who should pay for the dowry, and a higher amount in the case of "kidnapping" (runaway couple), according to what is ordered in Exodus 22:16,17 and Deuteronomy 22:28-29. In case of regular marriage, the cloth ritual is also a Hebrew rule, according to Deuteronomy 22:15-17. This last Bible quotation leads to another Romany rule, the "kris", elders’ assembly that solves law-suits usually by applying amends; Exodus 21:22; 22:9; Deuteronomy 22:16-19.
There are some other common elements and points that recall a Hebrew origin of Romany culture, even some habits held by Roma women seem to have a Biblical background, as quoted in Exodus 3:22: "All the women will ask their neighbours for silver and gold jewellery and clothing, with which you will dress your own sons and daughters…".
Of course, other Romany customs are in hard contrast with Bible rules, as fortune-telling and other "magic" arts, but we should notice that also ancient Hebrews have often yielded to such practises in spite of strict prohibition.Nevertheless, I am not stating that Roma are Hebrews, but a people that has lived close to Israelites and has shared at least partially the Hebrew faith and laws. Many other Romany traditions are rather recent, common to Slavic Orthodox peoples.
A second component of Romany tradition is of Persian influence and it could be justified only if Roma have been settled for a long time period in pre-Islamic Persia, therefore, previous to their arrival in India. Such traditions are in fact those alchemy and magic practises that have encouraged the creation of myths about Roma and their mysterious powers. These are evident signs of the familiarity of this people with the fire-worshippers, the religion of the Magi. This may also be the reason by which Arabs have given Roma the name "Nawwar", "children of light". It is a fact that in Persia there were some Magi interested in events connected with the people of Israel, as it is quoted in the Gospel, that some of them came to Yerushalayim guided by star observation: How could these Magi acknowledge the God of Israel? It is likely that they were offspring from those deportees from Eretz Yisrael who have joined Persian society and reached such a status to be recognized as Magi, or else they may have been Roma… It is a feasible hypothesis that Roma may have become Christians as a consequence of this event. Also because the way of Christianity professed by Roma seems to have developed separately. Therefore in Romany spirituality we can notice two main components: Hebrew and Persian. Many Romany rules have a direct relationship with the Torah and have not similarities elsewhere. There are also many apparent aspects that resemble the esoteric practices of fire-worshippers. But doing a careful study of true Romany spirituality, we realize that Hebrew elements are much more significant than Persian ones, because they regulate life within Roma community and have not any connection with outward practices, which rule relationship with Gadge (non-Roma). These external elements act as mysterious covering and mainly as source of profits, but have not any value within the community; such practices have no credit among Roma, that is to say, "Gypsies do not tell fortune each other".
Music is one of the deepest expressions of a people’s culture and spirituality. Concerning Hebrew and Romany music, there are many common features: they both have influenced each other, and in some case they have been mixed. Ancient Hebrews had in music their main cultural and artistic expression: they had not developed sciences, architecture or other arts like Egyptians, Assyrians, Chaldeans or other peoples. To build the Temple and the royal palace, king Shlomo entrusted Phoenicians with such task; musicians and singers instead, were Hebrews. Indeed, if we consult an encyclopaedia of history, we would hardly find many words about Hebrews’ arts except about music. In the Scriptures, the most extensive book is just the Book of Psalms (Tehilim), and the reading itself of all Bible books is performed following a melody.
What just said about ancient Hebrews, is also valid with regards to Roma: there is not any trace that a Romany architecture would have ever existed, and not even a literature (Romanes is a not-written language). Roma’s only artistic expression is music, song, dance. Only subsequently it has been developed a peculiar way of cultural expression that may be defined as "entertainment shows".
So, if there is now an evident link between Jews and Roma, this is music. It is not my purpose to write about topics of which there is enough information, that is why I would only do some brief comments about some typical styles of these two peoples, which I believe that deserve to be mentioned as expressions of culture and spirituality. I shall not even give a complete list and shall not separate Hebrew music from Romany, but I shall expose some concepts about both of them following a geographical location order, because if not for any other reason but mere coincidence, Jews and Roma were scattered in similar way in the same countries, so they have shared the same experiences and sufferings, and their music conveys the same emotions and feelings.In a chronological order, we can say that the oldest musical genre which exists nowadays is that of Yemenite Hebrews, who also have a particularly deep expression of their spirituality; so I would expose about their music by first.
Yemenite Jewish music: may be classified in three categories:
Liturgical, performed in the Synagogue, sung exclusively by men, in Hebrew and Aramaic languages.
A performance of Diwan has three main divisions: nashid, shira and hallel. Nashid is a prelude in free rhythm, never accompanied; shira (singing) is the central musical topic at the gathering and is danced; hallel (praise), is sung by dancers and chorus.
Yemenite Jewish music has been known worldwide in the last years thanks to the matchless and sublime voice of Ofrah Haza (25 Cheshvan 5718 – 17 Adar I 5760), the peace is with her, to whom I wanted to pay homage by the title of this site.
Sephardic music: is a rich musical genre with several similarities with Yemenite Jewish, as originally it was only vocal song without instruments, and it is women’s task to pass it on in oral tradition.
There are different categories: ballades, love songs, wedding and religious songs. It is sung in Hebrew or Ladino (Spanish). Sephardic music had its golden age between the years 4660 and 4810, when Spain was under Arabs’ rule. In those times, Arabs were tolerant to Jews. Spanish Jews committed themselves to studying sciences and arts; concerning literature and music, they adopted the Arabic metre and rhyme, which they applied also to reading the Holy Scriptures and their own liturgical songs, the "piyyutim".When Jews were expulsed from Spain in 5252, they emigrated mainly in the Eastern Mediterranean area, spreading Sephardic music, which was also enriched by acquiring local expressions. That is why today there are Greek, Balkanic, Turkish, North-African, and even Italian versions, which keep the original Spanish nature although having changed the melodies.
Flamenco: It may be said that flamenco is the heir of Sephardic music, as Roma arrived in Spain some time before Jews were expulsed. Roma were able to appreciate and capture the spirit of that people. Flamenco embodies Gypsy soul and is not only music, but a complex of feelings that Gypsies convey through song and dance. Flamenco is a rich combination of Andalusi-Arab musical expression, Jewish folk and Romany emotive power. In its complexity, we can define flamenco as the association of three elements: The "cante" (song), guitar accompaniment and improvised dance. The cante is divided into three categories:
1- cante "jondo" (profound, deep), intensely sad, deals with topics such as death, anguish, despair, or religion;
2- cante "medio" (intermediate), slightly lighter though moving, with oriental flavour;
3- cante "chico" (small, light), with joyful rhythm and main subject is love.
Flamenco has a large variety of categories which cannot be listed in this page, and has had a continuous evolution, acquiring such a versatility that a various range of styles, from Arabic to Cuban and Latin-American may be influenced becoming "flamenco-styled".
Flamenco was originally sung a cappella; the guitar accompaniment became usual when Gypsies began to sing in the "tablaos" (cafés), where the name "flamenco" was given to their music.Klezmer music: is the musical genre of Ashkenazim Jews. The word "klezmer", in Yiddish, comes from the Aramaic terms "kley zemer", "vessels of songs", meaning that human being is the bearer of music.
Differs from Yemenite and Sephardic music, which are both liturgical and secular, while klezmer is only secular since it is mainly instrumental (religious Hebrew music is "a cappella"). Its spreading in Europe is owing to bands of Jewish musicians from Russia and Eastern Europe, who in the beginning played for Jewish festivals and wedding ceremonies. These itinerant musicians, called "klezmorim", had the possibility to play for many sorts of audience while travelling, so that their originally Jewish style took elements from East-European folk; therefore, they received influences from Romany music, which was in turn influenced by klezmer.
Although klezmer music is essentially secular, it conveys the Jewish spirit of liturgical songs and Hassidic mysticism. Through melody, song and dance, it expresses joy and mourning of life. The klezmorim are a particular category within Jewish community; they pass on artistic tradition from father to son. Within European society they are a sort of privileged category of people who, thanks to their artistic ability, are esteemed "in spite of their ethnic background", just like Roma artists. 
Klezmer band of 19th Century (picture taken from the Hungarian "Odessa Klezmer Band" CD)
Romany music of Eastern Europe: As well as flamenco is the essential expression of Spanish musical heritage, Romany music is in Eastern Europe the main component of folk styles of peoples that are ethnically and culturally quite different like Russians, Hungarians, Slavs and Romanians. The broad range of artistic expressions of these peoples has been skilfully interpreted by Roma, who have given their own character to all folk music, becoming the common feature. Roma had a profound influence on Hungarian instrumental music, not only popular but also classic, having inspired several outstanding composers.
Family of Hungarian Roma musicians with cembalo and cello
(picture of 1929)
In Russia it was developed an unique genre of Romany music: choral singing groups and female soloists, who were engaged even at the imperial court. The golden age of "Romany" choral music coincided with the period of romanticism in Russian culture, when Roma were featured in every literary work as a stereotype of passion, freedom and slyness. With the revolution, Romany music and theatre acquired professional level.
As well as in Russia, in all East-European countries, music, song, dance, are cultural and spiritual expressions in which Roma’s presence is of vital importance. Romany orchestras have interacted with klezmer bands, enabling mutual enrichment and giving an important contribution to culture and spirituality of those nations.
Bible references:
Leviticus 5:3 Or if he touches human uncleanness, of whatever sort the uncleanness may be with which one becomes unclean, and it is hidden from him, when he comes to know it he shall be guilty.
Leviticus 15:1 The LORD said to Moses and Aaron, 2 Say to the people of Israel, When any man has a discharge from his body, his discharge is unclean. 3 And this is the law of his uncleanness for a discharge: whether his body runs with his discharge, or his body is stopped from discharge, it is uncleanness in him. 4 Every bed on which he who has the discharge lies shall be unclean; and everything on which he sits shall be unclean. 5 And any one who touches his bed shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 6 And whoever sits on anything on which he who has the discharge has sat shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 7 And whoever touches the body of him who has the discharge shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 8 And if he who has the discharge spits on one who is clean, then he shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 9 And any saddle on which he who has the discharge rides shall be unclean. 10 And whoever touches anything that was under him shall be unclean until the evening; and he who carries such a thing shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 11 Any one whom he that has the discharge touches without having rinsed his hands in water shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 12 And the earthen vessel which he who has the discharge touches shall be broken; and every vessel of wood shall be rinsed in water. 13 And when he who has a discharge is cleansed of his discharge, then he shall count for himself seven days for his cleansing, and wash his clothes; and he shall bathe his body in running water, and shall be clean. 14 And on the eighth day he shall take two turtledoves or two young pigeons, and come before the LORD to the door of the tent of meeting, and give them to the priest; 15 and the priest shall offer them, one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering; and the priest shall make atonement for him before the LORD for his discharge. 16 And if a man has an emission of semen, he shall bathe his whole body in water, and be unclean until the evening. 17 And every garment and every skin on which the semen comes shall be washed with water, and be unclean until the evening. 18 If a man lies with a woman and has an emission of semen, both of them shall bathe themselves in water, and be unclean until the evening. 19 When a woman has a discharge of blood which is her regular discharge from her body, she shall be in her impurity for seven days, and whoever touches her shall be unclean until the evening. 20 And everything upon which she lies during her impurity shall be unclean; everything also upon which she sits shall be unclean. 21 And whoever touches her bed shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 22 And whoever touches anything upon which she sits shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening; 23 whether it is the bed or anything upon which she sits, when he touches it he shall be unclean until the evening. 24 And if any man lies with her, and her impurity is on him, he shall be unclean seven days; and every bed on which he lies shall be unclean. 25 If a woman has a discharge of blood for many days, not at the time of her impurity, or if she has a discharge beyond the time of her impurity, all the days of the discharge she shall continue in uncleanness; as in the days of her impurity, she shall be unclean. 26 Every bed on which she lies, all the days of her discharge, shall be to her as the bed of her impurity; and everything on which she sits shall be unclean, as in the uncleanness of her impurity. 27 And whoever touches these things shall be unclean, and shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening. 28 But if she is cleansed of her discharge, she shall count for herself seven days, and after that she shall be clean. 29 And on the eighth day she shall take two turtledoves or two young pigeons, and bring them to the priest, to the door of the tent of meeting. 30 And the priest shall offer one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering; and the priest shall make atonement for her before the LORD for her unclean discharge. 31 Thus you shall keep the people of Israel separate 32 from their uncleanness, lest they die in their uncleanness by defiling my tabernacle that is in their midst. 32 This is the law for him who has a discharge and for him who has an emission of semen, becoming unclean thereby; 33 also for her who is sick with her impurity; that is, for any one, male or female, who has a discharge, and for the man who lies with a woman who is unclean.
Deuteronomy 23:12 You shall have a place outside the camp and you shall go out to it; 13 and you shall have a stick with your weapons; and when you sit down outside, you shall dig a hole with it, and turn back and cover up your excrement.
- Leviticus, 12:2 Say to the people of Israel, If a woman conceives, and bears a male child, then she shall be unclean seven days; as at the time of her menstruation, she shall be unclean. 3 And on the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised. 4 Then she shall continue for thirty-three days in the blood of her purifying; she shall not touch any hallowed thing, nor come into the sanctuary, until the days of her purifying are completed.
Exodus 22:16 If a man seduces a virgin who is not betrothed, and lies with her, he shall give the marriage present for her, and make her his wife. 17 If her father utterly refuses to give her to him, he shall pay money equivalent to the marriage present for virgins.
Deuteronomy, 22:15 then the father of the young woman and her mother shall take and bring out the tokens of her virginity to the elders of the city in the gate; 16 and the father of the young woman shall say to the elders, 'I gave my daughter to this man to wife, and he spurns her; 17 and lo, he has made shameful charges against her, saying, "I did not find in your daughter the tokens of virginity." And yet these are the tokens of my daughter's virginity.' And they shall spread the garment before the elders of the city. 18 Then the elders of that city shall take the man and whip him; 19 and they shall fine him a hundred shekels of silver, and give them to the father of the young woman, because he has brought an evil name upon a virgin of Israel; and she shall be his wife; he may not put her away all his days.
Deuteronomy 22:28 If a man meets a virgin who is not betrothed, and seizes her and lies with her, and they are found, 29 then the man who lay with her shall give to the father of the young woman fifty shekels of silver, and she shall be his wife, because he has violated her; he may not put her away all his days.
Exodus 21:22 When men strive together, and hurt a woman with child, so that there is a miscarriage, and yet no harm follows, the one who hurt her shall be fined, according as the woman's husband shall lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine.
Exodus 22:9 For every breach of trust, whether it is for ox, for ass, for sheep, for clothing, or for any kind of lost thing, of which one says, 'This is it,' the case of both parties shall come before God; he whom God shall condemn shall pay double to his neighbor.
Exodus 3:22 but each woman shall ask of her neighbor, and of her who sojourns in her house, jewellery of silver and of gold, and clothing, and you shall put them on your sons and on your daughters; thus you shall despoil the Egyptians.
